THE FUTURE OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Elliott Van Dusen
Rhine Education Center
A Historical Overview of Parapsychology
April 1, 2025
Abstract
This paper was written to fulfill the final assignment requirements for the Rhine Education
Center’s A Historical Overview of Parapsychology course. It provides a concise analysis of three major research approaches in the field: proof-oriented research, process-oriented research, and interdisciplinary collaboration. The strengths and limitations of each are evaluated, with emphasis placed on how they contribute to the scientific credibility and practical application of parapsychological research. The paper argues that the future of parapsychology is best served by a collaborative approach that integrates these methods to advance the field in a balanced and rigorous manner.
Keywords: parapsychology, proof-oriented, process-oriented, interdisciplinary
collaboration, future of research
Proof-oriented Research
Proof-oriented research focuses on collecting and analyzing data from controlled
experiments to determine whether parapsychological phenomena or abilities exist. These studies often use statistical methods to detect effects beyond chance and build empirical support for the reality of such phenomena (Williams, 2022). The Rhine Education Center’s A Historical Overview of Parapsychology course teaches that while Franz Mesmer and the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) laid the groundwork for
proof-oriented parapsychological research, it was the SPR whose “researchers soon concluded that telepathy genuinely occurred” (West, 2015, n.p.). Although some early psychical research relating to mediumship had stringently controls, they did not utilize statistical methods, repeatability, or quantitative analysis. These proof-oriented features did not fully emerge until the pioneering work of Joseph Banks Rhine at Duke University in the 1930s (Ventola, 2025).
In his book Extra-Sensory Perception, J. B. Rhine discusses how he conducted early proof-
oriented experiments in parapsychology using standardized Zener cards. He maintained experiment control by implementing blind procedures to prevent cueing, physically separating subjects and experimenters to eliminate sensory input, and randomizing card sequences to reduce predictability. Statistically, Rhine measured hit rates and calculated effect sizes while relying on probability theory, z-scores, and chi-square tests to determine whether his results significantly deviated from chance. He also conducted thousands of trials to ensure repeatability and encouraged independent replications to strengthen the scientific credibility of extrasensory perception (ESP) (Rhine 1935).
Proof-oriented research certainly has a place within the scientific study of parapsychology. One of the more recent and widely cited proof-oriented studies was a meta-analysis conducted by Charles Honorton and Daryl Bem, which evaluated multiple Ganzfeld telepathy experiments. Their research assessed whether the accumulated data across several independently conducted studies provided consistent evidence for the existence of telepathy. Bem and Honorton used strict inclusion criteria, focusing on controlled conditions, rigorous statistical methods, and well-defined methodological standards. After identifying qualifying experiments, they applied meta-analytic techniques to quantify the overall effect size. The results showed that participants identified target images at rates significantly above chance, thereby supporting the claim that anomalous information transfer can occur under controlled experimental conditions (Bem & Honorton, 1994).
Process-oriented Research
Process-oriented research focuses on exploring how biological, environmental,
psychological, and other influencing factors affect parapsychological phenomena or abilities by examining the conditions under which they occur and how those conditions may cause them to vary (Williams, 2022). During the 1950s, parapsychology began to shift from attempting to prove that\ parapsychological phenomena or abilities existed (proof-oriented research) to exploring how specific conditions influence their occurrence (process-oriented research). Influential parapsychologist Gertrude Schmeidler was a pioneer in examining how belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) affected experimental outcomes. Her work led to the identification of what is now known in parapsychology as the sheep-goat effect, which refers to the tendency for believers (“sheep”) to score higher on ESP tests than non-believers (“goats”) (Rhine Feather & Ensrud, 2018).
As discussed in the Week 3 lecture of A Historical Overview of Parapsychology, Annalisa
Ventola noted that, Rex. G. Stanford was among those notable figures during the 1970s to examine psi phenomena from a process-oriented perspective (Ventola, 2025). Stanford introduced the Psi- Mediated Instrumental Response (PMIR) model, which proposed that psi may operate unconsciously to help an individual adapt to environmental or psychological needs, even if they are unaware of it. Drawing on parallels to sensory functioning, he argued that extrasensory processes, like sensory ones, likely serve the needs and inclinations of organisms, sometimes best achieved through unconscious, automatic processes (Duggan, 2020). PMIR suggests that both extrasensory and psychokinetic forms of psi can support an individual’s goals by influencing timing, behavior, or attention toward adaptive outcomes. Importantly, Stanford outlined testable boundary conditions for when such effects might occur, marking a significant methodological shift toward examining the variables and conditions under which psi functions, rather than merely proving its existence.
A modern, groundbreaking, and controversial study which examined retroactive influences on cognition and affect was published by Cornell University social psychologist Daryl Bem in 2011. Although the study is a hybrid of proof-oriented and process-oriented research, this paper will focus on the process-oriented components. Bem adapted standard psychological experiments by reversing the typical sequence of cause and effect in which he measured participants’ responses before presenting the stimulus. His research focused on determining whether unconscious cognitive or emotional responses could be influenced by future events. This technique involved “time-reversing” established psychological effects, allowing researchers to observe participants’ decisions or behaviors prior to the appearance of the supposed causal stimuli (Ventola, 2025). These retroactive priming and recall effects explore the conditions under which psi might operate, particularly regarding unconscious information processing, emotional arousal, and memory. While the broader aim may have been to establish the existence of psi, Bem contributed meaningfully to understanding how psi might function within cognitive and affective systems through his process- oriented elements of his research. Since its publication, Bem’s study has been cited extensively in parapsychological literature and has sparked continued interest in the role of unconscious processes and time-related variables in psi research (Bem, 2011).
Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Since parapsychology’s beginning during the 19th century, it has maintained a close, although controversial, relationship with the field of psychology. William James who was
an early pioneer in psychical research, served as the first president of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885. However, he was also instrumental in shaping psychology and is often referred to as the “Father of American Psychology” (Ventola, 2025). Both disciplines were seen as complementary avenues for exploring human consciousness and anomalous experiences (Taylor, 1983). However, psychology would distance itself from parapsychology largely due to the lack of rigorous empirical evidence and methodological standards at that time (Irwin & Watt, 2007). However, recent decades have seen a renewed relationship and interdisciplinary collaboration between parapsychology, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and consciousness studies, especially in exploring altered states of consciousness, anomalous perception, and the
psychology of belief and experience. Due to the strong skepticism that parapsychology faces, its research methods, psychological tools, methodologies, and statistical methods have greatly improved to the point where they are setting standards for other experimenters to follow (Kruth, 2020).
One of the most significant examples of interdisciplinary collaboration in parapsychology
was the publication of the Joint Communiqué by parapsychologist Charles Honorton and
psychologist and skeptic Ray Hyman in 1986. This collaboration emerged from debates
surrounding the Ganzfeld telepathy experiments, which had shown statistically significant result in support of psi phenomena but were criticized for methodological shortcomings. Rather than remaining adversaries, Honorton and Hyman came together to identify common ground and establish rigorous methodological standards for future research. The Joint Communiqué outlined key recommendations, such as automated target selection and response recording, improved randomization procedures, and the implementation of preregistered protocols, all of which aimed to ensure scientific credibility and replicability (Hyman & Honorton, 1986). This demonstrated that constructive dialogue between opposing perspectives could lead to meaningful advancements in research design. It also helped bridge the gap between parapsychology and mainstream psychology by aligning experimental procedures with accepted scientific standards, thereby strengthening the field’s legitimacy and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration. Modern parapsychology has seen a resurgence of interdisciplinary collaboration, particularly with fields such as medicine, neuroscience, and quantum physics. One notable example is the work of Dr. Sam Parnia, a critical care physician and director of the AWARE (AWAreness during REsuscitation) studies, which investigate near-death experiences (NDEs) in cardiac arrest survivors. His work has been published in peer-reviewed medical journals and has brought scientific attention to phenomena traditionally studied within parapsychology (Parnia et al., 2014).
Looking ahead, the future of parapsychology should continue along a collaborative path that integrates proof-oriented, process-oriented, and interdisciplinary research. Proof-oriented studies remain essential for establishing the existence and replicability of paranormal phenomena under controlled conditions, thereby reinforcing the field’s scientific credibility. Process-oriented research contributes to the field by identifying the psychological, biological, and environmental conditions that influence when and how such phenomena occur. Furthermore, interdisciplinary collaborations with fields such as psychology, medicine, neuroscience, and physics serve to broaden our understanding and expand the field’s methodological tools. Whether investigating the biological implications of near-death experiences or exploring the cognitive mechanisms behind psi phenomena, this multifaceted framework encourages rigorous, well-rounded inquiry.
In conclusion, by embracing collaboration across the scientific spectrum, parapsychology can continue to evolve into a scientifically credible and socially relevant field of study.
References
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Bem, D. J. (2011). Feeling the future: Experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences on cognition and affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021524
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https://doi.org/10.31275/20212359
